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CHAPTER 02. High-Altitude Medicine and Pathophysiology

Chapter 2. High-Altitude Medicine and Pathophysiology
1.
High-Altitude syndrome
โ€ข
Hypobaric hypoxia์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋ฉฐ, hypoxia์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋…ธ์ถœ์˜ rapidity๊ฐ€ ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค.
1.
Acute Cerebral Hypoxia
a.
๋„ˆ๋ฌด ๋น ๋ฅธ ๊ณ ๋„์ƒ์Šน์ด๋‚˜ hypoxia๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ‘์ž๊ธฐ ์•…ํ™”๋  ๋•Œ, CO poisoning, pulmonary edema, sudden overexertion, sleep apnea, and failed oxygen delivery device ๋“ฑ์˜ ์ด์œ ๋กœ acute hypoxemia ๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ๋‹ค.
b.
SaO2๊ฐ€ 40~60%, PaO2๊ฐ€ 30mmHg์ดํ•˜, mixed venous PO2๊ฐ€ 15mmHg์— ๋‹ค๋‹ค๋ฅด๋ฉด, unacclimatized person์€ ์˜์‹์†Œ์‹ค์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ๋‹ค.
c.
Insufficient oxygen์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด, Fatigue, vertigo, sleepiness, hallucination, dizziness, prickling ๋“ฑ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ฆ์ƒ์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ, ๊ณ ๋„๊ฐ€ ๋‚ฎ์•„์ ธ ์‚ฐ์†Œ๊ณต๊ธ‰์ด ์›ํ™œํ•ด์ง€๋ฉด, ๋˜ ์›์ธ์„ ๊ต์ •ํ•œ๋‹ค๋ฉด (Oxygen delivery device๋ฅผ ๊ณ ์น˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜, apnea๋ฅผ ๊ต์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋“ฑ) ์ฆ์ƒ์ด ํ˜ธ์ „๋œ๋‹ค.
2.
High-Altitude Headache (HAH)
a.
Headache without other symptoms is called HAH, and if associated with other typical symptoms, it is called AMS.
b.
๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์–‘์ƒ (bilateral, dull, pulsatile, frontal, frontotemporalโ€ฆ) ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋‚˜, ๋ณดํ†ต new altitude์— ๋„๋‹ฌํ•œ 24์‹œ๊ฐ„ ๋‚ด ๋ฐค์— ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚˜๊ณ , ๋‹ค์Œ 24์‹œ๊ฐ„ ๋‚ด์— ์‚ฌ๋ผ์ง„๋‹ค.
c.
Pathophysiology
โ€ข
Trigeminovascular system is activated at altitude by both mechanical and chemical stimuli, and that eh threshold for pain is likely altered at high altitude. (Figure 2-1)
d.
Prevention and Treatment
โ€ข
NSAIDs, AAP
โ€ข
Acetazolamide, Dexamethasone : AMS prophylaxis medications
โ€ข
Sumatriptan : ์ผ๋ถ€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ ๋„์›€์ด ๋œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ฐํ˜€์ง.
3.
Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)
a.
Epidemiology and Risk Factors
โ€ข
Incidence and severity of AMS depend on rate of ascent and altitude attained, duration of altitude exposure, level of exertion, recent altitude exposure and inherent physiologic susceptibility.
โ€ข
Acclimatization : high altitude์—์„œ ์ตœ๊ทผ overnight๋ฅผ ํ•œ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ AMS์— protective effect๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๋‹ค์‹œ ์ €์ง€๋Œ€๋กœ ๋‚ด๋ ค์™€์„œ๋„ ํšจ๊ณผ๊ฐ€ ์œ ์ง€๋œ๋‹ค. (2์ฃผ ์ด์ƒ acclimatization ํ•˜๋ฉด ์ˆ˜๊ฐœ์›” ์ด์ƒ ํšจ๊ณผ๊ฐ€ ๋‚จ๊ธฐ๋„)
โ€ข
AMS์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๋Š” ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์ธ์ž๋กœ๋Š” genetic predisposition, altitude of residence, altitude reached, rate of ascent, and prior recent altitude exposure ๋“ฑ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค.
b.
Diagnosis : Setting, symptom, exclusion of other illnesses
โ€ข
Setting : unacclimatized๋œ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ์ด 1000m ์ดํ•˜์—์„œ 2500m์ด์ƒ์œผ๋กœ rapid ascent ํ•œ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ. ๋˜๋Š” acclimatized ํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ์€ abrupt ascent๋‚˜ overexertion, ํ˜ธํก์–ต์ œ ์•ฝ๋ฌผ์˜ ์‚ฌ์šฉ, infectious illness ๋“ฑ์— ์˜ํ•ด์„œ๋„ ๋ฐœ์ƒ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ.
โ€ข
Symptom : Headache, fatigue, dizziness, anorexia, insomnia, lassitude
โ€ข
Exclusion of other illness
โ€ข
Cough, DoE๋Š” ํ”ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ, AMS์˜ feature๋ผ๊ณ  ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†๋‹ค. Dyspnea at rest, worsening respiratory symptom ๋“ฑ์€ HAPE ๋“ฑ์„ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Altered mental status, ataxia ์—ญ์‹œ AMS์˜ feature ๊ฐ€ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ฉฐ, HACE ๋ฅผ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค.
1.
Differential Diagnosis
โ€ข
๊ธฐ๋ณธ์ ์œผ๋กœ nonspecific ํ•œ symptom ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์—, viral flulike illness, hangover, exhaustion, dehydration ๋“ฑ misdiagnosed ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ๋งŽ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Migraine : Oxygen supply๋‚˜ descent๋กœ ํ˜ธ์ „๋˜๋Š”์ง€ ์—ฌ๋ถ€
โ€ข
Hyponatremia : lab์„ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ๋งŽ์•„์„œ seizure๋ฅผ ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์ „์— AMS๋‚˜ HACE์™€ ๊ฐ๋ณ„์ด ์–ด๋ ต๋‹ค.
2.
Pathophysiology : AMS ๋Š” hypoxia์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ธ์ฒด์˜ ๋ฐ˜์‘์œผ๋กœ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์ง„๋‹ค. SpO2๊ฐ€ ์ •์ƒ์ด์–ด๋„ ๊ณ ์ง€๋Œ€์—์„œ๋Š” AMS๊ฐ€ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Mechanisms of Acute Mountain Sickness : ๊ณ ๋„ ์ƒ์Šน ๐Ÿกช transient brain volume ์ƒ์Šน ๐Ÿกช ICP ์ƒ์Šน ๐Ÿกช AMS
โ€ข
The Tight-Fit Hypothesis : brain volume์ด ์ปค์ง€๋ฉด CSF dynamics ์— ์˜ํ•ด ICP๊ฐ€ ์ƒ์Šนํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋„๋ก ํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ด capacity๊ฐ€ ํฌ๋ฉด AMS๊ฐ€ ์ž˜ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Intracranial Pressure : AMS๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ๋“ค์˜ ICP๊ฐ€ ๋†’์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋“ค์€ ์ž‘์€ ํ™œ๋™์—๋„ ICP์˜ ์ƒ์Šนํญ์ด ํฌ๋‹ค.
3.
Treatment : ๋น ๋ฅธ ์ง„๋‹จ์œผ๋กœ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์น˜๋ฃŒ๋ฅผ ์‹œ์ž‘ํ•˜๋ฉด ํšจ๊ณผ๊ฐ€ ์ข‹๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Acclimatization : ๊ณ ๋„ ์ƒ์Šน์„ ๋ฉˆ์ถ”๊ณ , acclimatization์ด ๋˜๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋‹ค๋ฆฐ๋‹ค. (12์‹œ๊ฐ„ ~ 4์ผ) Acetazolamide๊ฐ€ ๋„์›€์ด ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Symptomatic therapy : Aspirin, AAP, NSAIDs for headache, Ondansetron for nausea.
โ€ข
Oxygen delivery : 0.5~1L/min via nasal cannula or mask, ํŠนํžˆ ๋ฐค์— ์ž˜ ๋•Œ. Hyperbaric chamber๋Š” severe AMS๋‚˜ HACE, HAPE์— ๋„์›€์ด ๋œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Betamethasone : AMS์˜ early stage์— ์ฆ์ƒ ํ˜ธ์ „์— ๋„์›€์ด ๋œ๋‹ค.
4.
Prevention
โ€ข
ํ•œ๋ฒˆ์— ๋†’์€ ๊ณ ๋„๋กœ ๋“ฑ๋ฐ˜ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค.
โ€ข
2500~3000m์—์„œ 2๋ฐ•์„ ํ•˜๊ณ , ์ˆ˜๋ฉด๊ณ ๋„๋Š” 500m ์ด์ƒ ์˜ฌ๋ฆฌ์ง€ ์•Š์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๊ณ„์† ์˜ฌ๋ผ๊ฐˆ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ 1000m๋งˆ๋‹ค ์ ์‘์„ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ๋ฐค์„ ๋ณด๋‚ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Acetazolamide prophylaxis (DoC) : 250mg, 2~3 times a day. Paresthesia, polyuria๋“ฑ์˜ side effects๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Dexamethasone prophylaxis
โ€ข
Ginkgo Biloba prophylaxis
5.
High-Altitude Cerebral Edema
a.
Uncommon but deadly condition.
b.
Clinical presentation
โ€ข
์ฃผ์š” ์ฆ์ƒ : Ataxic gait, Severe lassitude, altered mental status
โ€ข
Hallucination, cranial nerve palsy, hemiparesis, seizure ๋“ฑ๋„ ๋ณด๊ณ ๋จ.
โ€ข
Focal neurologic deficit๋งŒ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ stroke๊ณผ ๊ฐ๋ณ„์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
c.
Pathophysiology : AMS์˜ advanced form
โ€ข
Vasogenic and cytotoxic edema. CT์™€ MR ๋“ฑ ์˜์ƒ๊ฒ€์‚ฌ๋กœ๋„ ํ™•์ธ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ
d.
Treatment and Prevention
โ€ข
Early recognition์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค.
โ€ข
์ฆ์ƒ์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋ฉด ์ฆ‰์‹œ descent๋ฅผ ์‹œ์ž‘
โ€ข
Dexamethasone 4~8mg IV, IM, PO, followed 4mg every 6 hours
โ€ข
Oxygen : 2~4L/min nasal cannula or mask
โ€ข
์˜์‹ ์ˆ˜์ค€์ด ๋งŽ์ด ๋–จ์–ด์ง€๋ฉด airway management๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Prevention์€ AMS์™€ ๋™์ผ
6.
Focal Neurologic Conditions without AMS or HACE : TIA์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ฆ์ƒ์„ ๋ณด์ด๋ฉฐ, ๋ถˆ์ถฉ๋ถ„ํ•œ regional circulation or oxygenation์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ๋‹ค. ์‚ฐ์†Œํˆฌ์—ฌ, steroid, ํ•˜๊ฐ• ๋“ฑ์œผ๋กœ ์น˜๋ฃŒ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๋‹ค.
7.
Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke) : HACE์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ์ฆ์ƒ์„ ๋ณด์ด๊ณ , ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์  ์š”์ธ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์ง„๋‹จ์ด challengingํ•˜๋‹ค.
8.
Cognitive Changes at High Altitude : High altitude illness๊ฐ€ ์—†๋Š” ์‚ฌ๋žŒ๋“ค์—๊ฒŒ์„œ ๋ณด์ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” Oxygen sensitiveํ•œ neurotransmitter synthesis mechanism๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค.
9.
High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)
a.
Most common cause of death related to high altitude. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ recognition์ด ๋น ๋ฅด๊ณ  ์น˜๋ฃŒ๋ฅผ ์ž˜ํ•˜๋ฉด ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ํšŒ๋ณต๋œ๋‹ค.
b.
Individual susceptibility, rate of ascent, altitude reached, degree of cold, physical exertion, underlying medical condition ๊ฐ€ HAPE์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์นœ๋‹ค.
c.
Clinical Presentation
โ€ข
์ฒ˜์Œ 2~4์ผ ์งธ์— ๋งŽ์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ 2์ผ์งธ ๋ฐค
โ€ข
Dyspnea on exertion, weakness, fatigue ๋กœ ์‹œ์ž‘
โ€ข
์ ์ฐจ dyspnea at rest, tachycardia, tachypnea ๋“ฑ์œผ๋กœ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ฐค์— ์•…ํ™”๋œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Hypoxia๋ฅผ ์•…ํ™”์‹œ์ผœ HACE๊ฐ€ ๋ณ‘๋ฐœํ•  ์œ„ํ—˜์ด ๋†’๋‹ค.
d.
Hemodynamics
โ€ข
High pulmonary artery pressure, increased pulmonary vascular resistance, TR, normal left ventricular systolic function
e.
Laboratory Studies
โ€ข
NT-proBNP : potential useful HAPE biomarker.
โ€ข
ABGA : marked hypoxemia and respiratory alkalosis
f.
Radiological Findings
โ€ข
X-ray : lung infiltration, unilateral or bilateral. ์น˜๋ฃŒ๋ฅผ ์‹œ์ž‘ํ•˜๋ฉด ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ํ˜ธ์ „๋œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
US : Cardiogenic pulmonary edema ์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ comet-tail appearance
g.
Pathologic Findings
โ€ข
Autopsy์—์„œ๋Š” right atrium, main pulmonary artery ๊ฐ€ extended ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, lung ์ „๋ฐ˜์˜ edema๊ฐ€ ๊ด€์ฐฐ๋œ๋‹ค. Brain edema๋ฅผ ๊ฐ™์ด ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๋„ ๋งŽ์•˜๋‹ค.
h.
Mechanisms of HAPE : Hypoxia ๐Ÿกช Pulmonary hypertension ๐Ÿกช Overperfusion ๐Ÿกช Capillary leak ๐Ÿกช HAPE
1.
Treatment
โ€ข
Early recognition ์ด outcome์— ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Oxygen supply ๐Ÿกจ hypoxia๋ฅผ ํ•ด๊ฒฐํ•˜์—ฌ pulmonary hypertension์˜ ํ˜ธ์ „
โ€ข
Descent
โ€ข
Drugs are limited necessity in HAPE because oxygen and descent are so effective.
โ€ข
Nifedipine, sildenafil, tadalafil (Oxygen์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์—†๊ฑฐ๋‚˜, descent ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†์„ ๋•Œ)
2.
Prevention : AMS์˜ ๊ทธ๊ฒƒ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค.
3.
Problems of Lifelong or Long-Term Residents of High Altitude
โ€ข
Reentry pulmonary edema : ๊ณ ์ง€๋Œ€์— ์‚ด๋˜ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ๋“ค์ด ์ €์ง€๋Œ€๋กœ ๋„ˆ๋ฌด ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ์ด๋™ํ•œ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ
โ€ข
Chronic mountain sickness : ๊ณ ์ง€๋Œ€ ๊ฑฐ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ด ๋งŒ์„ฑ์ ์ธ AMS-like symptom์„ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ. ์ €์ง€๋Œ€๋กœ ์ด๋™ํ•˜๋ฉด ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ์น˜๋ฃŒ๋œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Symptomatic high-altitude pulmonary hypertension (SHAPH) : ์ฃผ๋กœ ๊ณ ์ง€๋Œ€์— ์‚ฌ๋Š” ์†Œ์•„์—๊ฒŒ์„œ ๋ณด์ด๋ฉฐ, pulmonary hypertension ๐Ÿกช right ventricular hypertrophy ๐Ÿกช right sided heart failure. ์ €์ง€๋Œ€๋กœ ์ด๋™ํ•˜๋ฉด ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ์น˜๋ฃŒ๋œ๋‹ค.
4.
Children at High Altitude
a.
์‹ ์ƒ์•„๊ธฐ์— ํ•ฉ๋ณ‘์ฆ ๋ฐœ์ƒ๋ฅ ์ด ๋†’์•„์ง„๋‹ค.
b.
์„ฑ์žฅ๊ณผ ๋ฐœ๋‹ฌ์ด ๋”๋””๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•œ๋‹ค.
c.
์ €์ง€๋Œ€์—์„œ ๊ณ ์ง€๋Œ€๋กœ ์ด๋™ํ•  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ HAPE ๋ฐœ์ƒ์— ์ทจ์•ฝํ•˜๋‹ค.
5.
Other Medical Concerns at High Altitude
a.
CO poisoning : ํ™˜๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์ž˜ ์•ˆ๋˜๋Š” ํ…ํŠธ๋‚˜ shelter์—์„œ ์š”๋ฆฌํ•˜๋‹ค๊ฐ€ ์ฃผ๋กœ ๋ฐœ์ƒ. CO ๋ฐœ์ƒ source๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋–จ์–ด๋œจ๋ฆฌ๊ณ , portable hyperbaric therapy๊ฐ€ ๋„์›€์ด ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
b.
High-Altitude deterioration
c.
High-Altitude syncope
d.
Alcohol at high altitude : ventilatory acclimatization์— ๋‚˜์œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค˜์„œ AMS ๋ฐœ์ƒ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋†’์•„์งˆ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์œผ๋‹ˆ ์ฃผ์˜ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ์ข‹๋‹ค.
e.
Thrombosis: Coagulation and Platelet Changes : ๋ช…ํ™•ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ฑ์„ ๋ฐํžˆ๊ธฐ์—๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ๋” ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค.
f.
Peripheral edema : ์–ผ๊ตด, ์†, ๋ฐœ๋ชฉ ๋“ฑ์˜ ๋ถ€์ข…์ด ํ”ํžˆ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. ์ด๋‡จ์ œ๋กœ ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ๋œ๋‹ค.
g.
Immunosuppression : ๊ณ ์ง€๋Œ€์—์„œ๋Š” T lymphocyte function๊ณผ ์—ฐ๊ด€๋˜์–ด, ์„ธ๊ท ๊ฐ์—ผ์— ์ทจ์•ฝํ•ด์ง„๋‹ค. ์ €์ง€๋Œ€๋กœ ์ด๋™ํ•˜๋ฉด ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ๋œ๋‹ค.
h.
Sleep at High Altitude : ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ด์œ ๋กœ ์ˆ˜๋ฉด์žฅ์• ๊ฐ€ ํ”ํžˆ ํ™•์ธ๋œ๋‹ค.
i.
Periodic breathing : Early and light sleep์˜ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํ”ํ•œ ์›์ธ์ด๋ฉฐ, CNS respiratory center์˜ abnormal feedback control์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๊ณ , ์•ผ๊ฐ„์˜ hypoxemia์— ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค.
1.
Pharmaceutical Aids for Sleep
โ€ข
Acetazolamide
โ€ข
Diphenhydramine, short acting BZD (triazolam) ๋“ฑ : respiratory suppression์ด ์žˆ์–ด low dose๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๊ถŒ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค.
โ€ข
Zolpidem์ด ๋„์›€์ด ๋œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋ณด๊ณ ๋„ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
2.
High-Altitude Pharyngitis, Bronchitis, and Cough